Egalitarianism (derived from the French French is a Romance language spoken, around the world, by more than 100 million people as a first language (mother tongue), by 190 million as a second language, and by about another 200 million people as an acquired foreign language, with significant speakers in 54 countries. Most native speakers of the language live in France, where the language word égal, meaning equal) or Equalism is a political doctrine Doctrine is a codification of beliefs or "a body of teachings" or "instructions", taught principles or positions, as the body of teachings in a branch of knowledge or belief system. The Greek analogy is the etymology of catechism that holds that all people should be treated as equals and have the same political Political freedom can be described as the absence of interference with the sovereignty of an individual by the use of coercion or aggression, a definition which is also known as negative liberty. Political freedom can also be described as having the power and resources to act to fulfill one's own potential, as in the definition of positive liberty, economic Economic freedom is a term used in economic research and policy debates. As with freedom generally, there are various definitions, but no universally accepted concept of economic freedom. One major approach to economic freedom comes from the libertarian tradition emphasizing free markets and private property, while another extends the welfare, social Social justice, sometimes called civil justice, refers to the concept of a society in which "justice" is achieved in every aspect of society, rather than merely the administration of law. It is generally thought of as a world which affords individuals and groups fair treatment and an impartial share of the benefits of society. It can, and civil rights Civil and political rights are a class of rights and freedoms that protect individuals from the government and state power and assure the ability to participate in the civil and political life of the state.^[1] Generally it applies to being held equal under the law and society at large. In actual practice, one may be considered an egalitarian in most areas listed below, even if not subscribing to equality in every possible area of individual difference.

Applications of egalitarianism

Egalitarianism, not to be confused with Egalicontrarian, a blog hosted by Joshua Blanchard, is considered by some a protean doctrine; as a social philosophy it has been applied to society in a wide variety of different ways. Common forms of egalitarianism include economic egalitarianism Economic egalitarianism is a state of economic affairs in which the participants of a society are of equal standing and equal access to all the economic resources in terms of economic power, wealth, and contribution. It is a founding principle of various forms of socialism, legal egalitarianism Equality before the law or equality under the law or legal egalitarianism is the principle under which each individual is subject to the same laws, with no individual or group having special legal privileges. Legal egalitarianism admits no class structures entail separate legal practices. Thus, canon law, star chambers, and aristocracy are alike, luck egalitarianism, political egalitarianism Political egalitarianism is a term used to define a state of affairs in which the members of a society are of equal standing in terms of political power or influence. It is a founding principle of various forms of democracy, gender egalitarianism Gender equality is the goal of the equality of the genders or the sexes, stemming from a belief in the injustice of myriad forms of gender inequality, racial equality Racial equality refers to social equality for people of different races. It is a stated goal of most current political movements. The divergence of any particular society from a state of racial equality is often contested by members of that society of different races, asset-based egalitarianism Asset-based egalitarianism is a form of egalitarianism which theorises that equality is possible by a redistribution of resources, usually in the form of a capital grant provided at the age of majority. Names for the implementation of this theory in policy include universal basic capital, basic capital and stakeholding, and all are generally, and Christian egalitarianism Christian Egalitarianism holds that all people are equal before God and in Christ. All have equal responsibility to use their gifts and obey their calling to the glory of God. God freely calls believers to roles and ministries without regard to class, gender, or race.

Christian egalitarianism

The Christian egalitarian Christian Egalitarianism holds that all people are equal before God and in Christ. All have equal responsibility to use their gifts and obey their calling to the glory of God. God freely calls believers to roles and ministries without regard to class, gender, or race view holds that the Bible teaches the fundamental equality of men and women of all racial and ethnic groups, all economic classes, and all age groups, based on the teachings and example of Jesus Christ and the overarching principles of scripture.

Egalitarianism with regard to the doctrine of grace is taught throughout the Bible.^{[citation needed]} In both the Tanakh The Tanakh is a name for the Bible used in Rabbinic Judaism, also known as the Masoretic Text. The name "Tanakh" is a Hebrew acronym formed from the initial Hebrew letters of the Masoretic Text's three traditional subdivisions: The Torah ("Teaching," also known as the Five Books of Moses), Nevi'im ("Prophets") and and New Testament The New Testament is the name given to the second major division of the Christian Bible, the first such division being the much longer Old Testament. The New Testament is sometimes called the Greek New Testament or Greek Scriptures, or the New Covenant, repeated reference is made to the doctrine. Scholars^[who?] argue that the system of laws used in Ancient Israel outlined a basis for human rights Human rights refer to the "basic rights and freedoms to which all humans are entitled." Examples of rights and freedoms which have come to be commonly thought of as human rights include civil and political rights, such as the right to life and liberty, freedom of expression, and equality before the law; and economic, social and cultural that was egalitarian at its core: "Do not show partiality in judging; hear both small and great alike…" (Deuteronomy 1:17), discussing the economy of grace by which God deals with his subjects. In the NT, the Apostle Peter in a post-resurrection appearance says, "I now realize how true it is that God does not show favoritism…" (Acts 10:34).

Ultimately, Christian egalitarianism holds that all human people are equal in fundamental worth and moral status. A significant source of this trend of thought is the Christian notion that humankind were created in the living image of God The Image of God is a concept and theological doctrine that asserts that human beings are created in God's image and therefore have inherent value independent of their utility or function (Imago Dei) and that God loves all human beings equally, regardless of their individual differences in gender, race, status, position, etc.^[2] Illustrative of efforts to institutionalize this notion are these excerpts from an organizational Statement of Faith:

• We believe in the equality and essential dignity of men and women of all ethnicities, ages, and classes. We recognize that all persons are made in the image of God and are to reflect that image in the community of believers, in the home, and in society.

• We believe that men and women are to diligently develop and use their God-given gifts for the good of the home, church and society.^[3]

Political egalitarianism

The framers of various modern governments made references to the Enlightenment Developing more or less simultaneously in Germany, France, Great Britain, the Netherlands, Italy, Spain, and Portugal the movement spread through much of Europe, including the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, Russia and Scandinavia as well as in America. It could be argued that the signatories of the American Declaration of Independence, the United principles of egalitarianism, "inalienable rights endowed by their Creator," in the moral principles by which they lived, and which formed the basis for their legacy.

Broadly egalitarian philosophies

At a cultural level, egalitarian theories have developed in sophistication and acceptance during the past two hundred years. Among the notable broadly egalitarian philosophies are Socialism Socialism refers to any one of various theories of economic organization advocating state or cooperative ownership and administration of the means of production and distribution of goods, and a society characterized by equal opportunities/means for all individuals with a more egalitarian method of compensation based on the full product of the, Communism Communism is a socioeconomic structure and political ideology that promotes the establishment of an egalitarian, classless, stateless society based on common ownership and control of the means of production and property in general. In political science, the term "communism" is sometimes used to refer to communist states, a form of, Left-Libertarianism Left-libertarianism is a term that has been used to describe several different libertarian political movements and theorists, Progressivism Progressivism is a political and social term that refers to ideologies and movements favoring or advocating changes or reform, usually in a statist or egalitarian direction for economic policies and liberal direction for social policies (personal choice). Progressivism is often viewed in opposition to conservative ideologies, and Human Rights Human rights refer to the "basic rights and freedoms to which all humans are entitled." Examples of rights and freedoms which have come to be commonly thought of as human rights include civil and political rights, such as the right to life and liberty, freedom of expression, and equality before the law; and economic, social and cultural, which promote economic Economic egalitarianism is a state of economic affairs in which the participants of a society are of equal standing and equal access to all the economic resources in terms of economic power, wealth, and contribution. It is a founding principle of various forms of socialism, political Political egalitarianism is a term used to define a state of affairs in which the members of a society are of equal standing in terms of political power or influence. It is a founding principle of various forms of democracy, and legal egalitarianism Equality before the law or equality under the law or legal egalitarianism is the principle under which each individual is subject to the same laws, with no individual or group having special legal privileges. Legal egalitarianism admits no class structures entail separate legal practices. Thus, canon law, star chambers, and aristocracy are alike, respectively. Several egalitarian ideas enjoy wide support among intellectuals Intellectualism is any of a number of views regarding the use or development of the intellect or the practice of being an intellectual. In non-specialized contexts, the term "intellectualism" is often used to describe an attitude of devotion or high regard for intellectual pursuits. The term is sometimes used to name the view in and in the general populations of many countries. Whether any of these ideas have been significantly implemented in practice, however, remains a controversial question. For instance, some argue that modern representative democracy The representatives form more than what it used to be when it was an independent ruling body charged with the responsibility of acting in the people's interest, but not as their proxy representatives; that is, not necessarily always according to their wishes, but with enough authority to exercise swift and resolute initiative in the face of is a realization of political egalitarianism, while others believe that, in reality, most political power still resides in the hands of a ruling class The ruling class is a particular sector of the upper class that adheres to quite specific circumstances: it has both the most material wealth and the most widespread influence over all the other classes, and it chooses to actively exercise that power to shape the direction of a locality, a country, and/or the world. Most of the upper class does, rather than in the hands of the people.

Egalitarianism in young adults and children

A study of American college students published in Nature showed that people are willing to pay to reduce inequality.^[4] When subjects were placed into groups and given random amounts of income, they spent their own money to reduce the incomes of the highest earners and increase the incomes of the lowest earners.^[5][6] Critics argued that no experiments have been made on working adults whereupon they might not be generous with redistribution of their income.

In a follow-up study, Swiss children showed a significant increase in sharing between the ages of 3 and 8. It has not been determined whether the results of either of these experiments are due to an innate instinct, or exposure to and adoption of the customs of other people.^[7]

Criticism and support

A society that meets the meritocratic Meritocracy is a system of a government or other organization wherein appointments are made and responsibilities are given based on demonstrated talent and ability , rather than by wealth (plutocracy), family connections (nepotism), class privilege (oligarchy), friends (cronyism), seniority (gerontocracy), popularity (as in democracy) or other goal of equal opportunity might still be a harsh environment for those who lack the physical or mental capabilities to compete. It has been argued that policies that go beyond the meritocratic ideals are ineffective.^[8]

Various other anti-egalitarian views have been brought forward, among others in the discussion on the distribution of income. To the contrary, John Rawls John Rawls was an American philosopher and a leading figure in moral and political philosophy has argued that the welfare of a society depends on the welfare of the worst-off individual because society is better off if one improves the welfare of others.^[9]

See also

This entry is related to, but not included in the Political ideologies An ideology is a set of aims and ideas, especially in politics. An ideology can be thought of as a comprehensive vision, as a way of looking at things , as in common sense (see Ideology in everyday society below) and several philosophical tendencies (see Political ideologies), or a set of ideas proposed by the dominant class of a society to all series or one of its sub-series. Other related articles can be found at the Politics Portal In political science, the initiative provides a means by which a petition signed by a certain minimum number of registered voters can force a public vote on a proposed statute, constitutional amendment, charter amendment or ordinance, or, in its minimal form, to simply oblige the executive or legislative bodies to consider the subject by.

• "All men are created equal The quotation "All men are created equal..." is arguably the best-known phrase in any of America's political documents, as the idea it expresses is generally considered the foundation of American government. Thomas Jefferson first used the phrase in the Declaration of Independence as a rebuttal to the going political theory of the day:"
• Asset-based egalitarianism Asset-based egalitarianism is a form of egalitarianism which theorises that equality is possible by a redistribution of resources, usually in the form of a capital grant provided at the age of majority. Names for the implementation of this theory in policy include universal basic capital, basic capital and stakeholding, and all are generally
• Basic income A basic income is a proposed system of social security, that periodically provides each citizen with a sum of money that is sufficient to live on. Except for citizenship, a basic income is entirely unconditional. Furthermore, there is no means test; the richest as well as the poorest citizens would receive it
• Deep ecology Deep ecology is a somewhat recent branch of ecological philosophy that considers humankind an integral part of its environment. It is a body of thought that places greater value on the life of human and non-human species alike, as well as on the ecosystem and processes in nature, and establishing environmental and green movements. Deep ecology has
• Discrimination Discrimination toward or against a person of a certain group is the treatment or consideration based on class or category rather than individual merit. It can be behavior promoting a certain group , or it can be negative behavior directed against a certain group (e.g. redlining)
• Equality of outcome Equality of outcome or equality of condition is a form of egalitarianism which seeks to reduce or eliminate differences in material condition between individuals or households in a society. This usually means equalizing income and/or total wealth to a certain degree
• Equal opportunity Categories: Discrimination | Disability rights | Anti-racism | Civil rights and liberties
• Gender equality Gender equality is the goal of the equality of the genders or the sexes, stemming from a belief in the injustice of myriad forms of gender inequality
• Gift economy In the social sciences, a gift economy is a society where valuable goods and services are regularly given without any explicit agreement for immediate or future rewards (i.e. there is no formal quid pro quo). Ideally, simultaneous or recurring giving serves to circulate and redistribute valuables within the community. The organization of a gift
• Harrison Bergeron "Harrison Bergeron" is a satirical, dystopian science fiction short story written by Kurt Vonnegut, Jr. and first published in October, 1961. Originally published in The Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction, the story was re-published in the author's collection, Welcome to the Monkey House in 1968
• Inequity aversion Inequity aversion is the preference for fairness and resistance to inequitable outcomes. The social sciences that study inequity aversion sociology, economics, psychology, and anthropology
• Jock Tamson's Bairns "We're a' Jock Tamson's Bairns" is a popular saying in Scotland and the far north of England, and is known in other parts of the world. Nowadays, the phrase is often used to mean "we're all the same under the skin"
• Liberalism Liberalism emphasizes individual rights and equality of opportunity. Within liberalism, there are various streams of thought which compete over the use of the term "liberal" and may propose very different policies, but they are generally united by their support for political liberalism, which encompasses support for: freedom of thought
• Liberté, égalité, fraternité Liberté, égalité, fraternité, French for "Liberty, equality, fraternity ", is the national motto of France, and is a typical example of a tripartite motto. Although it finds its origins in the French Revolution, it was then only one motto among others and was not really institutionalized until the Third Republic at the end of the 19
• Reciprocal altruism In evolutionary biology and evolutionary psychology, reciprocal altruism is a form of altruism in which one organism provides a benefit to another without expecting any immediate payment or compensation. However, reciprocal altruism is not unconditional. Firstly the act of altruism must give rise to a surplus of cooperation, in the sense that the
• Social equality
• Socialism
• Tall poppy syndrome a pejorative term used in the United Kingdom, Australia and New Zealand
• Jante Law

References

1. ^ The American Heritage (2003). "egalitarianism". http://www.thefreedictionary.com/egalitarianism.
2. ^ Arneson, Richard (2002-08-16). "Egalitarianism". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2003 Edition). http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/egalitarianism/. Retrieved on 2007-02-10.
3. ^ "Statement of Faith". Christians for Biblical Equality. http://www.cbeinternational.org/new/about/who_we_are.shtml#statement. Retrieved on 2007-02-10.
4. ^ Dawes, Christopher T.,James H. Fowler, Tim Johnson, Richard McElreath, Oleg Smirnov (12 April 2007). "Egalitarian Motives in Humans". Nature 446: 794-796. doi:10.1038/nature05651.
5. ^ "The Robin Hood impulse". The Daily Telegraph. 12 April 2007. p. 8. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/connected/main.jhtml?xml=/connected/2007/04/12/echood12.xml.
6. ^ "Making the Paper: James Fowler". Nature (446,): xiii. 12 April 2007. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v446/n7137/full/7137xiiia.html.
7. ^ by Jon Hamilton. All Things Considered, NPR. 27 Aug 2008.
8. ^ John Schar (1967) "Equality of Opportunity—and Beyond"
9. ^ Joseph E. Stiglitz (2000) "Frontiers of Development Economics: The Future in Perspective"

External links

• Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy:
  • Egalitarianism, by R. Arneson (2002).
  • Equality, by S. Gosepath (2007).
  • Equality of opportunity, by R. Arneson (2002).
• Lepowsky, Maria. 1993. Fruit of the Motherland: Gender in an Egalitarian Society. New York: Columbia University Press.
• The Equality Studies Centre
• Twin Oaks Intentional Community
• Federation of Egalitarian Communities

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