In philosophy Most academic subjects have a philosophy, for example the philosophy of science, the philosophy of mathematics, the philosophy of logic, the philosophy of law, and the philosophy of history. In addition, a range of academic subjects have emerged to deal with areas which would have historically been the subject of philosophy. These include, an object is a thing, an entity An entity is something that has a distinct, separate existence, though it need not be a material existence. In particular, abstractions and legal fictions are usually regarded as entities. In general, there is also no presumption that an entity is animate. Entities are used in system developmental models that display communications and internal, or a being In ontology being is anything that can be said to be, either transcendentally or immanently. This may be taken in several senses. In its weakest sense, the word "object" is the most all-purpose of nouns, and can replace a noun in any sentence at all. (In ordinary usage, the word has something like this effect, but not as extreme.) Thus objects are things as diverse as the pyramids A pyramid is a building where the outer surfaces are triangular and converge at a point. The base of a pyramid is usually trilateral or quadrilateral , meaning that a pyramid usually has four or five faces. A pyramid's design, with the majority of the weight closer to the ground, means that less material higher up on the pyramid will be pushing, Alpha Centauri Alpha Centauri ; (also known as Rigil Kentaurus, Rigil Kent, or Toliman) is the brightest star in the southern constellation of Centaurus and an established binary star system, Alpha Centauri AB (α Cen AB). To the unaided eye it appears as a single star, whose total visual magnitude would identify it as the third brightest star in the night sky, the number seven 7 is the natural number following 6 and preceding 8. It is the smallest positive integer to be spoken with two syllables when pronounced in English, my disbelief in predestination Predestination is a religious concept, which involves the relationship between God and His creation. The religious character of predestination distinguishes it from other ideas about determinism and free will. Those who believe in predestination, such as John Calvin, believe that before the creation God determined the fate of the universe, and your mother's fear of dogs The fear of dogs is also known as Cynophobia , from the Greek cyno meaning dog and phobos meaning fear or terror. Cynophobia is classified as a specific phobia, under the subtype Animal. According to Dr. Timothy O. Rentz of the Laboratory for the Study of Anxiety Disorders at the University of Texas, animal phobias are among the most common of the. Philosopher Charles S. Peirce Charles Sanders Peirce (September 10, 1839 – April 19, 1914) was an American logician, mathematician, philosopher, and scientist, born in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Peirce was educated as a chemist and employed as a scientist for 30 years. It is largely his contributions to logic, mathematics, philosophy, and semiotics (and his founding of defines the broad notion of an object as anything that we can think or talk about.^[1]

In a more restricted sense, an object is something that can have properties In modern philosophy, mathematics, and logic, a property is an attribute of an object; thus a red object is said to have the property of redness. The property may be considered a form of object in its own right, able to possess other properties. Properties are therefore subject to the Russell's paradox/Grelling-Nelson paradox. It differs from the and bear relations Charles Sanders Peirce (September 10, 1839 – April 19, 1914) was an American logician, mathematician, philosopher, and scientist, born in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Peirce was educated as a chemist and employed as a scientist for 30 years. It is largely his contributions to logic, mathematics, philosophy, and semiotics (and his founding of to other objects. On this account, properties and relations (as well as propositions) are not included among objects, but are explicitly contrasted with them, as falling into a different logical category. Sets and universals In metaphysics, a universal is what particular things have in common, namely characteristics or qualities. In other words, universals are repeatable or recurrent entities that can be instantiated or exemplified by many particular things. For example, suppose there are two chairs in a room, each of which is green. These two chairs both share the are also perhaps not objects on this account.

In a further restricted sense, objects do not include abstract objects An abstract object is an object which does not exist at any particular time or place, but rather exists as a type of thing . In philosophy, an important distinction is whether an object is considered abstract or concrete. Abstract objects are sometimes called abstracta (sing. abstractum) and concrete objects are sometimes called concreta (sing, but only physical bodies In physics, a physical body or physical object is a collection of masses, taken to be one. For example, a cricket ball can be considered an object but the ball also consists of many particles (pieces of matter) located somehow in space and time (e.g. minds and bodies). Numbers, ideas, and the like are excluded. In yet another restricted sense, objects are often just the material objects (excluding minds), or even just the inanimate material objects (the protons The proton is a subatomic particle with an electric charge of +1 elementary charge. It is found in the nucleus of each atom but is also stable by itself and has a second identity as the hydrogen ion, 1H+. It is composed of 3 even more fundamental particles comprising two up quarks and one down quark, neutrons The neutron is a subatomic particle with no net electric charge and a mass slightly larger than that of a proton, and electrons The electron is a subatomic particle that carries a negative electric charge. It has no known substructure and is believed to be a point particle. Electrons participate in gravitational, electromagnetic and weak interactions. Like its rest mass and elementary charge, the intrinsic angular momentum of an electron has a constant value. In the we are made of, but not we ourselves).

Objects are often treated as types of particulars In philosophy, particulars are concrete entities existing in space and time as opposed to abstractions. There are, however, theories of abstract particulars or tropes. For example, Socrates is a particular . Redness, by contrast, is not a particular, because it is abstract and multiply-instantiated (my bicycle, this apple, and that woman's hair, but occasionally, philosophers see fit to speak of abstract objects An abstract object is an object which does not exist at any particular time or place, but rather exists as a type of thing . In philosophy, an important distinction is whether an object is considered abstract or concrete. Abstract objects are sometimes called abstracta (sing. abstractum) and concrete objects are sometimes called concreta (sing (e.g. platonic forms Platonic realism is a philosophical term usually used to refer to the idea of realism regarding the existence of universals after the Greek philosopher Plato , a student of Socrates, and the teacher of Aristotle. As universals were by Plato considered ideal forms this stance is confusingly also called Platonic idealism). An abstract object is normally referred to as something that does not exist physically. It is rational to say that abstract objects exist psychically The word psychic refers to a claimed ability to perceive information hidden from the normal senses through extrasensory perception, or to people said to have such abilities. It is also used to refer to theatrical performers who use techniques such as prestidigitation and cold reading to produce the appearance of such abilities. It can also denote, as opposed to physically With regard to living things, a body refers to physical body of an individual. "Body" often is used in connection with appearance, health issues and death. The study of the workings of the body is physiology.

Objecthood

In ontology Ontology is the philosophical study of the nature of being, existence or reality in general, as well as of the basic categories of being and their relations. Traditionally listed as a part of the major branch of philosophy known as metaphysics, ontology deals with questions concerning what entities exist or can be said to exist, and how such, objecthood is the state of being an object. Metaphysical frameworks differ in whether they consider objects to exist independently of their properties and, if so, in the nature of that existence.

In ontologies that include objects as a fundamental category of entity, the nature of objecthood determines the types of claims that can be made about objects in general. The following conversation illustrates two incompatible metaphysical schemes:

Philosopher A sees a white flash.

Philosopher A: What was that object?

Philosopher B: A bicycle.

Philosopher A: No, it was clearly a motorbike.

Philosopher B: Well, you are not really being objective This article is about the philosophical concept of "objectivity". For discussions of objectivity as it is applied to the practices of science and journalism, see Objectivity and Objectivity (journalism). For other uses see Objectivity (disambiguation).

Objects as properties and relations

One approach to defining objecthood is in terms of objects' properties and relations. Bodies, for example, have properties and relations. It seems that descriptions of all bodies, minds, and persons must be in terms of their properties and relations. For example, it seems that the only way to describe an apple is by describing its properties and how it is related to other things. Its properties may include its redness, its size, and its composition, while its relations may include "on the table", "in the room", and "being bigger than other apples".

The philosophical question of the nature of objecthood concerns how objects are related to their properties and relations. For example, ignoring relations for simplicity, the nature of objecthood includes the nature of the relationship between objects and their properties.

Problems of objecthood

The notion of an object is a primitive concept in some ontologies,^[which?] that is, it is meaningful but cannot be explained in terms of anything else. Whether a metaphysical scheme includes objecthood as a primitive concept, and if so the specific nature the scheme gives objecthood, is what most differentiates the various ontologies. The properties of objecthood apply to all objects, by definition.

Theories of objecthood address two problems:

• the change problem
• the problem of substance

The change problem

Properties of an object are the attributes of it that can be experienced (e.g. its color, size, weight, smell, taste, and location). Objects manifest themselves as clusters of their properties. Those clusters seem to change in a regular and unified way, suggesting that something underlies the properties. The change problem asks what that underlying thing is. According to substance theory Substance theory, or substance attribute theory, is an ontological theory about objecthood, positing that a substance is distinct from its properties. This is part of essentialism in that ousia as a substance can also be a descriptor of an objects being and or nature. As substance or ousia is a permanent property of an object without which the, the answer is a substance, that which stands under the change.

The problem of substance

Because substances are only experienced through their properties, a substance itself is never directly experienced. The problem of substance asks on what basis can one conclude the existence of a substance cannot be seen or scientifically verified. According to bundle theory Bundle theory, originated by the 18th century Scottish philosopher David Hume, is the ontological theory about objecthood in which an object consists only of a collection of properties, relations or tropes, the answer is: none; thus an object is merely its properties.

Some philosophies^[which?] include theories of both bodies (physical substances) and minds There are many theories of the mind and its function. The earliest recorded works on the mind are by Zarathushtra, the Buddha, Plato, Aristotle, Adi Shankara and other ancient Greek, Indian and Islamic philosophers. Pre-scientific theories, based in theology, concentrated on the relationship between the mind and the soul, the supernatural, divine (mental substances). So, the problem of substance arises in both the physical and the mental realms.

Substance theory vs. bundle theory

Whether objects are just collections of properties or separate from those properties appears to be a strict dichotomy. That is, it seems that objects must be either collections of properties or something else. The leading theories about objecthood are substance theory Substance theory, or substance attribute theory, is an ontological theory about objecthood, positing that a substance is distinct from its properties. This is part of essentialism in that ousia as a substance can also be a descriptor of an objects being and or nature. As substance or ousia is a permanent property of an object without which the, wherein substances (objects) are distinct from their properties, and bundle theory Bundle theory, originated by the 18th century Scottish philosopher David Hume, is the ontological theory about objecthood in which an object consists only of a collection of properties, relations or tropes, wherein objects are no more than bundles of their properties.

Nagarjuna

In the Mūlamadhyamakakārikā Mūlamadhyamakakārikā , or Fundamental Verses on the Middle Way, is a key text by Nagarjuna, one of the most important Buddhist philosophers. It now stands at the centre of modern philosophical analysis of the Madhyamaka philosophy, which is rapidly proliferating to match the rich and varied commentarial tradition that the text has accumulated Nagarjuna Acharya Nāgārjuna (c. 150 - 250 CE) was an Indian philosopher and the founder of the Madhyamaka school of Mahāyāna Buddhism seizes this dichotomy (objects are either just collections of properties or that they are separate from those properties) in a Tetralemma A similar tradition of fourfold negation, the Catuskoti , is evident in the logico-epistemological tradition of India, given the categorical nomenclature 'Indian logic' in Western discourse. Subsumed within the auspice of Indian logic, 'Buddhist logic' has been particularly focused in its employ of the fourfold negation, as evidenced by the to demonstrate that both assertions fall apart under analysis. By uncovering this paradox, he then provides a solution (pratītyasamutpāda The doctrine of pratītyasamutpāda , often translated as "dependent arising," is a cardinal doctrine within Buddhist Philosophy. Common to all schools of Buddhism, it states that phenomena arise together in a mutually interdependent web of cause and effect. It is variously rendered into English as "dependent origination", & - dependent origination ) which lies at the very root of Buddhist Buddhists recognize him as an awakened teacher who shared his insights to help sentient beings end their suffering by understanding the true nature of phenomena, thereby escaping the cycle of suffering and rebirth , that is, achieving Nirvana. Among the methods various schools of Buddhism apply towards this goal are: ethical conduct and altruistic praxis.

Although pratītyasamutpāda is normally limited to caused objects, Nagarjuna extends his argument to objects in general by differentiating Pratītyasamutpāda The doctrine of pratītyasamutpāda , often translated as "dependent arising," is a cardinal doctrine within Buddhist Philosophy. Common to all schools of Buddhism, it states that phenomena arise together in a mutually interdependent web of cause and effect. It is variously rendered into English as "dependent origination", & into two distinct ideas - dependent designation and dependent origination (MMK 24-18 Mūlamadhyamakakārikā , or Fundamental Verses on the Middle Way, is a key text by Nagarjuna, one of the most important Buddhist philosophers. It now stands at the centre of modern philosophical analysis of the Madhyamaka philosophy, which is rapidly proliferating to match the rich and varied commentarial tradition that the text has accumulated). He proposes that all objects are dependent upon designation, and therefore any discussion regarding the nature of objects can only be made in light of context. The validity of objects can only be established within those conventions that assert them.^[2]

Other applications

Value theory

Value theory Value theory encompasses a range of approaches to understanding how, why, and to what degree humans should value things, whether the thing is a person, idea, object, or anything else. This investigation began in ancient philosophy, where it is called axiology or ethics. Early philosophical investigations sought to understand good and evil, and the concerns the value of objects. When it concerns economic value The economic value of a good or service has puzzled economists since the beginning of the discipline. First, economists tried to estimate the value of a good to an individual alone, and extend that definition to goods which can be exchanged. From this analysis came the concepts value in use and value in exchange, it generally deals with physical objects In physics, a physical body or physical object is a collection of masses, taken to be one. For example, a cricket ball can be considered an object but the ball also consists of many particles (pieces of matter). However, when concerning philosophic or ethic value In ethics, value is a property of objects, including physical objects as well as abstract objects , representing their degree of importance, an object may be both a physical object In physics, a physical body or physical object is a collection of masses, taken to be one. For example, a cricket ball can be considered an object but the ball also consists of many particles (pieces of matter) and an abstract object An abstract object is an object which does not exist at any particular time or place, but rather exists as a type of thing . In philosophy, an important distinction is whether an object is considered abstract or concrete. Abstract objects are sometimes called abstracta (sing. abstractum) and concrete objects are sometimes called concreta (sing (e.g. an action).

Physics

Limiting discussions of objecthood to the realm of physical objects may simplify them. However, defining physical objects in terms of fundamental particles In particle physics, an elementary particle or fundamental particle is a particle not known to have substructure; that is, it is not known to be made up of smaller particles. If an elementary particle truly has no substructure, then it is one of the basic building blocks of the universe from which all other particles are made. In the Standard (e.g. quarks A quark is an elementary particle and a fundamental constituent of matter. Quarks combine to form composite particles called hadrons, the best-known of which are protons and neutrons, the components of atomic nuclei. They are the only elementary particles in the Standard Model of particle physics to experience all four fundamental interactions,) leaves open the question of what is the nature of a fundamental particle In philosophy, the philosophy of physics studies the fundamental philosophical questions underlying modern physics, the study of matter and energy and how they interact. The philosophy of physics begins by reflecting on the basic metaphysical and epistemological questions posed by physics: causality, determinism, and the nature of physical law. It and thus asks what categories of being In metaphysics , the different kinds or ways of being are called categories of being or simply categories. According to the Aristotelian tradition, a being is anything that can be said to be in the various senses of this word. Hence, to investigate the categories of being is to determine the most fundamental senses in which things can be said to can be used to explain physical objects.

Semantics

Symbols A symbol is something such as an object, picture, written word, sound, or particular mark that represents something else by association, resemblance, or convention. For example, a red octagon may stand for "STOP". On maps, crossed sabres may indicate a battlefield. Numerals are symbols for numbers represent objects; how they do so, the map-territory relation The map is not the territory is a remark by Polish-American scientist and philosopher Alfred Korzybski, encapsulating his view that an abstraction derived from something, or a reaction to it, is not the thing itself, for example, the pain from a stone falling on your foot is not the stone; one's opinion of a politician, favorable or unfavorable,, is the basic problem of semantics Semantics is the study of meaning. The word "semantics" itself denotes a range of ideas, from the popular to the highly technical. It is often used in ordinary language to denote a problem of understanding that comes down to word selection or connotation. This problem of understanding has been the subject of many formal inquiries, over a.

See also

• Abstraction Abstraction is the process or result of generalization by reducing the information content of a concept or an observable phenomenon, typically in order to retain only information which is relevant for a particular purpose. For example, abstracting a leather soccer ball to a ball retains only the information on general ball attributes and behaviour
• Category theory
• Continuous predicate
• Concept
• Hypostatic abstraction
• Hypostasis
• Reification
• Sign relation
• Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
• Subject (grammar)
• Subject (philosophy)

References

1. ^ Peirce, Charles S.. "Object". University of Helsinki. http://www.helsinki.fi/science/commens/terms/object.html. Retrieved on 2009-03-19.
2. ^ Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies pp296-297 - Karl H. Potter, Harold G Coward

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